Mencius

Mencius deepened Confucianism from a set of ethical precepts into a philosophical system grounded in a theory of human nature. Honored as the Second Sage, he gave the tradition its optimism about human potential.

Born around 372 BC in the state of Zou in present-day Shandong, he lost his father early and was raised by his mother. The famous tale of her moving three times, from cemetery to market to school, illustrates the power of environment in shaping character. He studied under a disciple of Zisi, Confucius's grandson.

Mencius traveled among rulers such as King Hui of Liang and King Xuan of Qi, urging benevolent governance over military force. In an era of constant warfare, his message was rejected. Like Confucius he went unheeded, but Mencius was more confrontational, speaking bluntly to rulers.

The core of his thought is innate goodness. Everyone is born with four sprouts: compassion, the germ of benevolence; shame, of righteousness; deference, of propriety; moral judgment, of wisdom. These sprouts are natural but must be cultivated through education; unnurtured, they wither.

In politics he declared the people most important, altars of state next, the ruler least. He argued tyrants may legitimately be overthrown. Ming founder Zhu Yuanzhang reportedly censored passages he found threatening. After centuries of moderate influence, Zhu Xi canonized the Mencius as one of the Four Books. In Edo Japan, Ito Jinsai held it in especially high regard.

The contrast with Xunzi, who argued human nature is bad, has framed Confucian debate for millennia. Yet both thinkers shared the goal of moral cultivation through education. Mencius simply insisted the seeds are already planted; the work lies in tending them.